Which daughter element is produced from the beta decay of

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Total mass—energy is also conserved: the energy produced in the decay comes from conversion of a fraction of the original mass. This is easily done using masses given in Appendix A. The energy carried away by the recoil of the U nucleus is much smaller in order to conserve momentum. This decay is spontaneous and releases energy, because the products have less mass than the parent nucleus. The question of why the products have less mass will be discussed in Binding Energy.

Note that the masses given in Appendix A are atomic masses of neutral atoms, including their electrons. In this case, there are 94 electrons before and after the decay. There are actually three types of beta decay. The neutrino is a particle emitted in beta decay that was unanticipated and is of fundamental importance.

The neutrino was not even proposed in theory until more than 20 years after beta decay was known to involve electron emissions. Neutrinos are so difficult to detect that the first direct evidence of them was not obtained until Neutrinos are nearly massless, have no charge, and do not interact with nucleons via the strong nuclear force. Traveling approximately at the speed of light, they have little time to affect any nucleus they encounter.

This is, owing to the fact that they have no charge and they are not EM waves , they do not interact through the EM force. They do interact via the relatively weak and very short range weak nuclear force. Consequently, neutrinos escape almost any detector and penetrate almost any shielding. However, neutrinos do carry energy, angular momentum they are fermions with half-integral spin , and linear momentum away from a beta decay. When accurate measurements of beta decay were made, it became apparent that energy, angular momentum, and linear momentum were not accounted for by the daughter nucleus and electron alone.

Either a previously unsuspected particle was carrying them away, or three conservation laws were being violated. Wolfgang Pauli made a formal proposal for the existence of neutrinos in The Italian-born American physicist Enrico Fermi — gave neutrinos their name, meaning little neutral ones, when he developed a sophisticated theory of beta decay see Figure 3.

Figure 3. Enrico Fermi was nearly unique among 20th-century physicists—he made significant contributions both as an experimentalist and a theorist. His many contributions to theoretical physics included the identification of the weak nuclear force. The fermi fm is named after him, as are an entire class of subatomic particles fermions , an element Fermium , and a major research laboratory Fermilab.

His experimental work included studies of radioactivity, for which he won the Nobel Prize in physics, and creation of the first nuclear chain reaction. The neutrino also reveals a new conservation law. There are various families of particles, one of which is the electron family.

We propose that the number of members of the electron family is constant in any process or any closed system. In our example of beta decay, there are no members of the electron family present before the decay, but after, there is an electron and a neutrino.

The bar indicates this is a particle of antimatter. All particles have antimatter counterparts that are nearly identical except that they have the opposite charge. Antimatter is almost entirely absent on Earth, but it is found in nuclear decay and other nuclear and particle reactions as well as in outer space.

The total is zero, before and after the decay. The new conservation law, obeyed in all circumstances, states that the total electron family number is constant.

An electron cannot be created without also creating an antimatter family member. This law is analogous to the conservation of charge in a situation where total charge is originally zero, and equal amounts of positive and negative charge must be created in a reaction to keep the total zero. It is as if one of the neutrons in the parent nucleus decays into a proton, electron, and neutrino.

Figure 4. The daughter nucleus has one more proton and one less neutron than its parent. Neutrinos interact so weakly that they are almost never directly observed, but they play a fundamental role in particle physics.

Angular momentum is conserved, but not obviously you have to examine the spins and angular momenta of the final products in detail to verify this. Linear momentum is also conserved, again imparting most of the decay energy to the electron and the antineutrino, since they are of low and zero mass, respectively. Another new conservation law is obeyed here and elsewhere in nature. The total number of nucleons A is conserved.

In 60 Co decay, for example, there are 60 nucleons before and after the decay. The initial mass is just that of the parent nucleus, and the final mass is that of the daughter nucleus and the electron created in the decay.